Marxist Criticism:
Marxist criticism in literature zooms in on how social and economic structures shape what we read. It's all about understanding how books mirror society's class struggles and power dynamics, and how they can either support or question these structures.
For these critics, literature isn't just a mirror; it's a tool that shapes society too. They argue that stories can either support the powerful or challenge the existing norms to spark social change.
They dig into how literature reflects the link between people and their society. According to them, our lives are influenced by the world around us, and stories help us grasp these influences and think about changing them.
For Marxist critics, literature isn't just for entertainment; it's a means to highlight social issues, question the way things are, and inspire people to make a difference.
This approach isn't set in stone; there's no single "right" Marxist way to interpret a text. Instead, Marxist critics offer different viewpoints that help us see literature in fresh and more insightful ways.
Key concepts in Marxist criticism:
1. Class Struggle:This is the clash between the rich ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat) striving for better conditions.
2. Exploitation: It's how the wealthy class profits from the labor of the working class, gaining from their hard work.
3. Alienation: This concept refers to the disconnection felt by workers from their labor, what they produce, and even from their co-workers.
4. Ideology: It's the set of beliefs and values that props up the interests of the ruling class, influencing how society functions and justifying the status quo.
Examples:-
Animal Farm, written by George Orwell, is a political satire portraying animals overthrowing their human owners to create a new society. Yet, this new society soon turns corrupt, subjecting the animals to oppression once more. According to Marxist critics, the novel serves as a cautionary tale highlighting the perils of totalitarianism.
In the movie 'Ishq,' two wealthy businessmen are close friends, and they want their children to marry each other. However, their children fall in love with individuals from lower or working-class backgrounds. When the parents discover this, they make relentless attempts to separate their children from their less affluent partners. Unable to persuade their children to leave their lovers, they resort to extreme measures, including using their influence with the police and government to torment the less wealthy partners. They even hire accomplices to try to harm or kill them.
Conclusion
Marxist criticism offers a strong way to see how literature mirrors and influences social and economic systems. It helps us spot and question exploitation, alienation, and ideology in literature, guiding us toward advocating for fairness and equality in society.
Ecocriticism:
Ecocriticism serves as a multidisciplinary approach, delving into the intersection of literature, the environment, and various scientific disciplines. It aims to explore the intricate connections between human activities, societal perspectives, and the natural world depicted in literary works.
Key concepts in Ecocriticism:
1. Nature: Refers to everything in the natural world, encompassing both living organisms and nonliving elements.
2. Environment:Describes the natural world concerning its interaction with human activities and their impact on it.
3. Sustainability:Signifies the capacity of the natural world to fulfill current requirements without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to satisfy their own needs.
4. Environmental justice:Involves fair and impartial treatment of all individuals regarding the creation, execution, and application of environmental laws, rules, and policies.
At its core, ecocriticism examines how literature represents our relationship with nature and environmental issues. It doesn't solely focus on the surface-level narrative but delves into the underlying messages about human interaction with the environment, the impact of industrialization, and the consequences of societal attitudes toward nature.
One of the key concerns of ecocritics is identifying and scrutinizing the detrimental impacts of corporations and industries on nature, whether these effects are direct or indirect. By analyzing literary texts, ecocritics aim to uncover the subtle ways in which human activities, societal norms, and technological advancements have shaped our interactions with the natural world.
Furthermore, ecocriticism isn't confined to a singular approach but embraces various designations such as "green cultural studies," "eco-poetics," or "environmental literary criticism." These designations encapsulate the breadth of this critical lens, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of how literature reflects and influences our ecological consciousness.
In the contemporary landscape, the relevance of ecocriticism has amplified with the rise of numerous new companies and their impact on the environment. Ecocritics place a particular emphasis on challenging anthropocentric views and advocating for nature-centered perspectives. They scrutinize the conflict between ecological considerations and human desires, often encapsulated in the dichotomy of ECO versus EGO, underscoring the tension between environmental consciousness and individualistic pursuits.
Ecocriticism delves into two critical aspects:
1) Challenging Anthropocentric Views:
Ecocritics scrutinize how prevalent religions and philosophies in Western society often prioritize human interests over nature and animals. They explore how society connects nature to religious beliefs and myths, sometimes perceiving harming nature as ordained rather than sinful. This perspective can influence societal attitudes towards environmental damage.
2) Critique of Binaries:
Ecocriticism questions opposing ideas like man/nature or culture/nature, which are often viewed as entirely separate entities. Instead, it seeks to bridge the gap between human society and the natural world, recognizing their interconnectedness.
Ecocritics challenge the hierarchical view that places humans at the top and all other life forms below. They critique mass production for benefiting only the wealthy while disregarding the needs of the broader population.
For instance, the concept of selling water seems inconceivable for local communities but favors the wealthy. Ecocritics highlight that companies thrive on natural resources and often influence government agendas, shifting priorities towards corporate interests over public welfare.
Their stance isn't against globalization or development but centers on protecting nature and people's well-being, emphasizing the need to safeguard democracy.
The idea of zoos becomes problematic for ecocritics as they see it as exploiting animals for entertainment or profit. They challenge the romanticized portrayal of rural life as regressive rather than progressive.
Ecocriticism focuses on the clash between nature and culture, critiquing how our cultural values often damage nature. Ecofeminism, arising from this, challenges patriarchal notions linking the exploitation of women and nature, arguing that both are subject to male domination and exploitation.
Culturally, nature is often symbolized as feminine, paralleling women's position in society. This metaphorical understanding influences how we view nature but overlooks its true perspective and situation.
While art often glorifies nature's beauty, ecocritics aim to uncover the reality behind cultural perceptions, seeking to understand nature's true condition beyond metaphors and romanticization.
In the context of industrial development, ecocritics highlight a paradox. While efforts for progress and development through factories and companies are praised, blame often falls on local or tribal communities when environmental disasters occur. However, ecocritics argue that nature possesses remarkable regenerative abilities against natural disturbances caused by humans. The impact of machinery-induced destruction, on the other hand, may linger for years, demonstrating the lasting repercussions of human-made damage to the environment.
Example:-
In films like "Sherni,"
ecocritics observe the impact on wildlife when their habitats are disrupted. They analyze current environmental issues in comparison to historical perspectives, often highlighting human involvement in causing crises like viruses in the name of progress.
In the movie "Avatar," a human is dispatched to an alien planet to persuade the indigenous inhabitants to vacate their homeland, allowing humans to extract precious resources. Ecocritics view this film as a critique of both colonialism and environmental degradation.
For instance, an ecocritical interpretation of "Avatar" might explore how the movie portrays the interaction between humans and the environment, illustrates the consequences of colonialism on both the indigenous community and the planet's ecology, and prompts viewers to contemplate their own connections with the natural world.
Conclusion :-
Ecocriticism serves as a valuable lens for exploring the bond between literature and the environment. It allows us to view nature not merely as a setting for human stories but as a vital, interconnected system deserving of our care.
Moreover, ecocriticism helps us analyze how environmental concerns are depicted in our cultural expressions. It empowers us to question prevailing stories that influence our perceptions of these issues. Through this, ecocriticism becomes a catalyst for fostering environmental consciousness, motivating individuals to actively safeguard the natural world.
Feminism:
Feminist criticism encompasses various perspectives examining literature and cultural works through a feminist lens. It aims to explore how texts depict gender roles and power structures, impacting our understanding of the world and societal norms.
Early in the 20th century, feminist scholars pioneered feminist criticism by challenging the dominance of male-authored literature. Figures like Virginia Woolf and Simone de Beauvoir highlighted how sidelining women's voices in literature perpetuated gender inequality.
A resurgence of feminist criticism occurred during the 1960s and 1970s, coinciding with the second-wave feminist movement's quest for comprehensive gender equality. Critics at this time examined various aspects, from women's portrayals in popular culture to the construction of gender roles in children's literature, as well as women's involvement in creating literature.
In recent times, feminist criticism has continued its evolution. Present-day feminist critics explore diverse themes, including the interplay of gender with other oppressions like race and class, representations of queer and transgender individuals in literature, and the impact of digital media on how literature is both produced and consumed.
Feminism has evolved across four distinct phases:
First Wave: Originating in the 19th to early 20th centuries, it advocated for women's suffrage rights.
Second Wave: Emerged in the 1960s, focusing on the women's liberation movement and striving for legal and social parity.
Third Wave: Around 1992, this phase emphasized individuality and diverse experiences within feminism.
Fourth Wave: Commencing roughly in 2012, this wave leveraged social media to confront issues like sexual harassment, violence against women, and rape culture, notably through movements like Me Too.
Key Concept of Feminist Criticism:-
1. Patriarchy: Refers to a societal structure where men hold power and dominance over women.
2. Gender roles:Describes the set of behaviors and societal expectations linked to being male or female within a specific cultural context.
3. Sexism: Signifies prejudice and discrimination against women based on their sex.
4. Misogyny:Represents a strong dislike or contempt directed toward women.
5. Essentialism: The notion that inherent and unchangeable differences exist between men and women.
6. Constructionism: The belief that societal norms and expectations around gender are shaped by society and can be altered.
Examples:-
In the movie "Rashmi Rocket," the protagonist Rashmi's exceptional talent in running faster than most challenges societal norms. As she starts winning races, doubts about her gender arise not just from men but also from women in her community. This highlights how societal expectations influence women's perceptions and behaviors.
The film reveals that women, too, are conditioned by societal norms dictating ideal behaviors. Rashmi's identity is initially confined by these expectations. When she's praised with traits like powerful, caring, and selfless, she accepts these compliments without questioning or exploring beyond these predetermined roles.
Essentially, the portrayal of women's identity often begins with societal expectations and literary representations that paint an image of traditional or ideal women, suppressing their aspirations and desires.
Conclusion:-
Feminist criticism is a valuable method for exploring how literature and cultural works portray gender roles and power relationships. It aids in recognizing and addressing sexism and various types of oppression, contributing to the promotion of gender equality.
Queer Theory:-
Queer theory is a new way of looking at gender and sexuality. It questions the usual ideas about what's normal and challenges how society thinks about being straight or gay. This field explores how society creates rules about gender and sexual identity, like saying what's okay and what's not. It asks why these rules exist and how they affect people.
Queer theory is a part of studying gender and sexuality. It aims to change what we see as "normal" or "okay." Its main goal is to rethink and redefine how we understand who we are and how we fit into society.
This theory has a big impact in schools, conversations, and even laws about LGBTQ+ rights. It challenges the idea that our differences should automatically mean unequal rights. Instead, it says that everyone should have equal rights, no matter their identity.
It's not just about rights. Queer theory also wants to change how we think in many areas, not just about gender and sexuality. It questions how we see things and aims to break down the power structures that divide people in society.
In the future, queer theory hopes for a world where identities are more flexible and not confined by strict rules. It pushes us to rethink what we know about gender, sexuality, and identity by questioning old ideas and making space for everyone.
Key Concept In Queer Theory:-
1. Heteronormativity: Thinking that being straight is normal and everything else is different or wrong.
2. Gender performativity: Believing that gender isn't just something we're born with, but something we show through our actions and behaviors.
3. Sexual fluidity: Saying that our sexual feelings can change over time; they're not always the same.
4. Intersex:Describing people born with body parts that don't fit into the usual categories of male or female.
5. Transgender: Describing people whose sense of themselves as male or female doesn't match what they were called when they were born.
Queer theory isn't just one way of looking at things; it has many views. These different views can help us see and understand things in new and deeper ways.
It's not just about studying queer people. It's also about how gender and sexuality mix with other things like race, class, and ability.
Queer theory doesn't just describe the world. It wants to change how things are and make a better world for everyone, no matter their gender or sexuality.
What lesbian/gay critics do:
1. Establish a canon of 'classic' lesbian/gay writers, prominent in the twentieth century, including figures like Virginia Woolf, Vita Sackville-West, Dorothy Richardson, Rosamund Lehmann, and Radclyffe Hall.
2. Identify instances of lesbian/gay narratives within mainstream works and engage in focused discussions about these episodes. For instance, explore the relationship between Jane and Helen in Jane Eyre, emphasizing a specific acknowledgment of same-sex pairings rather than interpreting them in vague or symbolic terms (Zimmerman).
3. Introduce an extended, metaphorical understanding of 'lesbian/gay,' portraying it as a moment involving the crossing of boundaries or the blurring of predefined categories. Highlight these 'liminal' instances as reflections of the self-identification process within the lesbian or gay experience, emphasizing the conscious resistance to established norms and boundaries.
4. Uncover instances of 'homophobia' in mainstream literature and criticism by exposing the neglect or denigration of homosexual elements within the works of major canonical figures. For example, critique the omission of overtly homosexual love lyrics from selections or discussions of W. H. Auden's poetry, as noted by Mark Lilly.
5. Accentuate the homosexual dimensions present in mainstream literature that may have been overlooked, particularly showcasing the strongly homoerotic tenderness found in a significant body of First World War poetry.
6. Highlight literary genres that have been historically neglected but played a substantial role in shaping ideals of masculinity or femininity. Explore, for instance, nineteenth-century adventure stories set in the British 'Empire,' as discussed by Joseph Bristow in Empire Boys, shedding light on their influence and significance.
Examples:-
Virginia Woolf's novel "Orlando" follows a nobleman who lives an incredibly long life and changes gender along the way. Queer critics say this book questions the usual ideas about gender and sexuality, celebrating how both can change and be flexible.
It's a noteworthy moment in Indian cinema when a well-known figure like Ayushmann Khurrana openly expresses love through a famous 80s track, 'Pyaar bina chain kaha re.' Dressed in a vibrant outfit reminiscent of the era, this song is part of his upcoming movie, Shubh Mangal Zyada Saavdhan. The film takes a progressive step by addressing homophobia and shedding light on same-sex love. What sets Shubh Mangal Zyada Saavdhan apart is its effort to connect society with the queer community by casting a popular actor in a significant role.
Conclusion:-
Queer theory is a valuable approach for examining how society creates and shows gender and sexuality. It assists in recognizing and questioning the norms that define heterosexual behavior, and advocates for embracing and including queer individuals.
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